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_Number_ is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two `
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numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or `
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more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of `
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_s_ or _es_. `
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_Gender_ has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but `
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while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, `
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feminine, neuter and common. The masculine gender denotes all those of `
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the male kind, the feminine gender all those of the female kind, the `
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neuter gender denotes inanimate things or whatever is without life, and `
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common gender is applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time `
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being is indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things `
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which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, `
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belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called `
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Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, `
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as, for instance, we say of the sun, _He_ is rising; of the moon, _She_ `
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is setting. `
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_Case_ is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a `
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preposition. There are three cases, the _Nominative_, the _Possessive_ `
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and the _Objective_. The nominative is the subject of which we are `
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speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the `
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possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the `
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person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb. `
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An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the latter is `
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used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, _a_ or `
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_an_ and _the_. `
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An _Adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows `
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some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun. `
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DEFINITIONS `
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A _Pronoun_ is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep us from `
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repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns, have case, `
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number, gender and person. There are three kinds of pronouns, _personal_, `
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_relative_ and _adjective_. `
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A _verb_ is a word which signifies action or the doing of something. A `
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verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and person, though the `
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latter two belong strictly to the subject of the verb. `
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An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective and sometimes `
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another adverb. `
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A _preposition_ serves to connect words and to show the relation between `
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the objects which the words express. `
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A _conjunction_ is a word which joins words, phrases, clauses and `
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sentences together. `
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An _interjection_ is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden `
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emotion of the mind. `
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THREE ESSENTIALS `
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The three essentials of the English language are: _Purity_, _Perspicuity_ `
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and _Precision_. `
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By _Purity_ is signified the use of good English. It precludes the use of `
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all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous `
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expressions or any ungrammatical language whatsoever. Neither does it `
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sanction the use of any newly coined word until such word is adopted by `
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the best writers and speakers. `
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_Perspicuity_ demands the clearest expression of thought conveyed in `
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unequivocal language, so that there may be no misunderstanding whatever `
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of the thought or idea the speaker or writer wishes to convey. All `
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ambiguous words, words of double meaning and words that might possibly be `
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construed in a sense different from that intended, are strictly `
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forbidden. Perspicuity requires a style at once clear and comprehensive `
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and entirely free from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining `
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after effect. `
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_Precision_ requires concise and exact expression, free from redundancy `
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and tautology, a style terse and clear and simple enough to enable the `
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hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the meaning of the speaker or `
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writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all long and involved sentences, `
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and, on the other, those that are too short and abrupt. Its object is to `
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strike the golden mean in such a way as to rivet the attention of the `
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hearer or reader on the words uttered or written. `
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CHAPTER II `
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ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR `
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Divisions of Grammar--Definitions--Etymology. `
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In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is `
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imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, `
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for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how `
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much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not `
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know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and `
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the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like `
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the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the `
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import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without `
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reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and `
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as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as `
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those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the `
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grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while `
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thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy. `
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DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR `
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There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: `
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_Orthography_, _Etymology_, _Syntax_, and _Prosody_. `
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_Orthography_ treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words. `
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_Etymology_ treats of the various classes of words and the changes they `
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undergo. `
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_Syntax_ treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences. `
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_Prosody_ treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different `
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kinds of verse. `
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The three first mentioned concern us most. `
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LETTERS `
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A _letter_ is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. `
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Letters are divided into _vowels_ and _consonants_. A vowel is a letter `
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which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded `
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without the aid of vowels. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and `
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sometimes _w_ and _y_ when they do not begin a word or syllable. `
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SYLLABLES AND WORDS `
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A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of `
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[Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every `
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syllable there must be at least one vowel. `
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A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables. `
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Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the `
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best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs `
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of speech in properly pronouncing them. `
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THE PARTS OF SPEECH `
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ARTICLE `
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An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is `
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used in a particular or general sense. `
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There are two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. _A_ or _an_ is called the `
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indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or `
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thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, _a_ man means any `
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man whatsoever of the species or race. `
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_The_ is called the definite article because it points out some particular `
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person or thing; thus, _the_ man means some particular individual. `
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NOUN `
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A _noun_ is the name of any person, place or thing as _John_, _London_, `
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_book_. Nouns are proper and common. `
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_Proper_ nouns are names applied to _particular_ persons or places. `
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_Common_ nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species. `
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Nouns are inflected by _number_, _gender_ and _case_. `
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_Number_ is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it `
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represents one or more than one. `
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_Gender_ is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the `
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name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has `
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no distinction of sex. `
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_Case_ is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the `
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person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or `
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question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of `
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an action or of a relation. `
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Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the `
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distinction between _book_ which represents only one object and _leaves_ `
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which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called _Number_; `
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the distinction of sex between _John_, a male, and _Sarah_, a female, and `
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_book_ and _leaves_, things which are inanimate and neither male nor `
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female, is called _Gender_; and the distinction of state between _John_, `
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the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, _Mary_, `
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the owner of the book, _leaves_ the objects torn, and _book_ the object `
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related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called `
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_Case_. `
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